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A001586
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Generalized Euler numbers, or Springer numbers.
(Formerly M2908 N1169)
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49
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1, 1, 3, 11, 57, 361, 2763, 24611, 250737, 2873041, 36581523, 512343611, 7828053417, 129570724921, 2309644635483, 44110959165011, 898621108880097, 19450718635716001, 445777636063460643, 10784052561125704811, 274613643571568682777, 7342627959965776406281
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OFFSET
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0,3
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COMMENTS
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The Springer numbers were originally considered by Glaisher (see references). They are a type B analog of the zigzag numbers A000111 for the group of signed permutations.
COMBINATORIAL INTERPRETATIONS
Several combinatorial interpretations of the Springer numbers are known:
1) a(n) gives the number of Weyl chambers in the principal Springer cone of the Coxeter group B_n of symmetries of an n dimensional cube. An example can be found in [Arnold - The Calculus of snakes...].
2) Arnold found an alternative combinatorial interpretation of the Springer numbers in terms of snakes. Snakes are a generalization of alternating permutations to the group of signed permutations. A signed permutation is a sequence (x_1,x_2,...,x_n) of integers such that {|x_1|,|x_2|,...,|x_n|} = {1,2,...,n}. They form a group, the hyperoctahedral group of order 2^n*n! = A000165(n), isomorphic to the group of symmetries of the n dimensional cube. A snake of type B_n is a signed permutation (x_1,x_2,...,x_n) such that 0 < x_1 > x_2 < ... x_n. For example, (3,-4,-2,-5,1,-6) is a snake of type B_6. a(n) gives the number of snakes of type B_n [Arnold]. The cases n=2 and n=3 are given in the Example section below.
3) The Springer numbers also arise in the study of the critical points of functions; they count the topological types of odd functions with 2*n critical values [Arnold, Theorem 35].
4) Let F_n be the set of plane rooted forests satisfying the following conditions:
... each root has exactly one child, and each of the other internal nodes has exactly two (ordered) children,
... there are n nodes labeled by integers from 1 to n, but some leaves can be non-labeled (these are called empty leaves), and labels are increasing from each root down to the leaves. Then a(n) equals the cardinality of F_n. An example and proof are given in [Verges, Theorem 4.5].
OTHER APPEARANCES OF THE SPRINGER NUMBERS
1) Hoffman has given a connection between Springer numbers, snakes and the successive derivatives of the secant and tangent functions.
2) For integer N the quarter Gauss sums Q(N) are defined by ... Q(N) := Sum_{r = 0..floor(N/4)} exp(2*Pi*I*r^2/N). In the cases N = 1 (mod 4) and N = 3 (mod 4) an asymptotic series for Q(N) as N -> inf that involves the Springer numbers has been given by Evans et al., see 1.32 and 1.33.
For a sequence of polynomials related to the Springer numbers see A185417. For a table to recursively compute the Springer numbers see A185418.
(End)
Similar to the way in which the signed Euler numbers A122045 are 2^n times the value of the Euler polynomials at 1/2, the generalized signed Euler numbers A188458 can be seen as 2^n times the value of generalized Euler polynomials at 1/2. These are the Swiss-Knife polynomials A153641. A recursive definition of these polynomials is given in A081658. - Peter Luschny, Jul 19 2012
a(n) is the number of reverse-complementary updown permutations of [2n]. For example, the updown permutation 241635 is reverse-complementary because its complement is 536142, which is the same as its reverse, and a(2)=3 counts 1324, 2413, 3412. - David Callan, Nov 29 2012
a(n) = |2^n G(n,1/2;-1)|, a specialization of the Appell sequence of polynomials umbrally formed by G(n,x;t) = (G(.,0;t) + x)^n from the Grassmann polynomials G(n,0;t) of A046802 enumerating the cells of the positive Grassmannians. - Tom Copeland, Oct 14 2015
Named "Springer numbers" after the Dutch mathematician Tonny Albert Springer (1926-2011). - Amiram Eldar, Jun 13 2021
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REFERENCES
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V. I. Arnold, Springer numbers and Morsification spaces. J. Algebraic Geom., Vol. 1, No. 2 (1992), pp. 197-214.
J. W. L. Glaisher, "On the coefficients in the expansions of cos x/cos 2x and sin x/cos 2x", Quart. J. Pure and Applied Math., Vol. 45 (1914), pp. 187-222.
J. W. L. Glaisher, On the Bernoullian function, Q. J. Pure Appl. Math., Vol. 29 (1898), pp. 1-168.
Ulrike Sattler, Decidable classes of formal power series with nice closure properties, Diplomarbeit im Fach Informatik, Univ. Erlangen - Nuernberg, Jul 27 1994.
N. J. A. Sloane, A Handbook of Integer Sequences, Academic Press, 1973 (includes this sequence).
N. J. A. Sloane and Simon Plouffe, The Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences, Academic Press, 1995 (includes this sequence).
Tonny Albert Springer, Remarks on a combinatorial problem, Nieuw Arch. Wisk., Vol. 19, No. 3 (1971), pp. 30-36.
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LINKS
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Zhi-Wei Sun, Conjectures involving arithmetical sequences, Number Theory: Arithmetic in Shangri-La (eds., S. Kanemitsu, H.-Z. Li and J.-Y. Liu), Proc. the 6th China-Japan Sem. Number Theory (Shanghai, August 15-17, 2011), World Sci., Singapore, 2013, pp. 244-258; see Conjectures involving combinatorial sequences, arXiv preprint arXiv:1208.2683 [math.CO], 2012.
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FORMULA
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E.g.f.: 1/(cos(x) - sin(x)).
Let B_n(x) = Sum_{k=0.. n*(n-1)/2} b(n,k)*x^k, where b(n,k) is number of n-node acyclic digraphs with k arcs, cf. A081064; then a(n) = |B_n(-2)|. - Vladeta Jovovic, Jan 25 2005
G.f. A(x) = y satisfies y'^2 = 2y^4 - y^2, y''y = y^2 + 2y'^2. - Michael Somos, Feb 03 2004
a(n) = (-1)^floor(n/2) Sum_{k=0..n} 2^k C(n,k) Euler(k). - Peter Luschny, Jul 08 2009
(1)... a(n) = ((1 + i)/2)^n*B(n,(1 - i)/(1 + i)), where i = sqrt(-1) and {B(n,x)}n>=0 = [1, 1 + x, 1 + 6*x + x^2, 1 + 23*x + 23*x^2 + x^3, ...] is the sequence of type B Eulerian polynomials - see A060187.
This yields the explicit formula
(2)... a(n) = ((1 + i)/2)^n*Sum_{k = 0..n} ((1 - i)/(1 + i))^k * Sum_{j = 0..k} (-1)^(k-j)*binomial(n+1,k-j)*(2*j + 1)^n.
The result (2) can be used to find congruences satisfied by the Springer numbers. For example, for odd prime p
(3)
... a(p) = 1 (mod p) when p = 4*n + 1
... a(p) = -1 (mod p) when p = 4*n + 3.
(End)
E.g.f.: 1/Q(0) where Q(k) = 1 - x/((2k+1)-x*(2k+1)/(x+(2k+2)/Q(k+1))); (continued fraction). - Sergei N. Gladkovskii, Nov 19 2011
E.g.f.: 2/U(0) where U(k) = 1 + 1/(1 + x/(2*k + 1 -x - (2*k+1)/(2 - x/(x+ (2*k+2)/U(k+1))))); (continued fraction, 5-step). - Sergei N. Gladkovskii, Sep 24 2012
E.g.f.: 1/G(0) where G(k) = 1 - x/(4*k+1 - x*(4*k+1)/(4*k+2 + x + x*(4*k+2)/(4*k+3 - x - x*(4*k+3)/(x + (4*k+4)/G(k+1) )))); (continued fraction, 3rd kind, 5-step). - Sergei N. Gladkovskii, Oct 02 2012
G.f.: 1/G(0) where G(k) = 1 - x*(2*k+1) - 2*x^2*(k+1)*(k+1)/G(k+1); (continued fraction). - Sergei N. Gladkovskii, Jan 11 2013
a(n) = | 2*4^n*lerchphi(-1, -n, 1/4) |. - Peter Luschny, Apr 27 2013
a(n) ~ 4 * n^(n+1/2) * (4/Pi)^n / (sqrt(Pi)*exp(n)). - Vaclav Kotesovec, Oct 07 2013
G.f.: T(0)/(1-x), where T(k) = 1 - 2*x^2*(k+1)^2/( 2*x^2*(k+1)^2 - (1-x-2*x*k)*(1-3*x-2*x*k)/T(k+1) ); (continued fraction). - Sergei N. Gladkovskii, Oct 15 2013
a(n) = (-1)^C(n+1,2)*2^(3*n+1)*(Zeta(-n,1/8)-Zeta(-n,5/8)), where Zeta(a,z) is the generalized Riemann zeta function. - Peter Luschny, Mar 11 2015
E.g.f. A(x) satisfies: A(x) = exp( Integral A(x)/A(-x) dx ). - Paul D. Hanna, Feb 04 2017
E.g.f. A(x) satisfies: A'(x) = A(x)^2/A(-x). - Paul D. Hanna, Feb 04 2017
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EXAMPLE
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Example
a(2) = 3: The three snakes of type B_2 are
(1,-2), (2,1), (2,-1).
a(3) = 11: The 11 snakes of type B_3 are
(1,-2,3), (1,-3,2), (1,-3,-2),
(2,1,3), (2,-1,3), (2,-3,1), (2,-3,-1),
(3,1,2), (3,-1,2), (3,-2,1), (3,-2,-1).
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MAPLE
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a := proc(n) local k; (-1)^iquo(n, 2)*add(2^k*binomial(n, k)*euler(k), k=0..n) end; # Peter Luschny, Jul 08 2009
a := n -> (-1)^(n+iquo(n, 2))*2^(3*n+1)*(Zeta(0, -n, 1/8) - Zeta(0, -n, 5/8)):
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MATHEMATICA
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n=21; CoefficientList[Series[1/(Cos[x]-Sin[x]), {x, 0, n}], x] * Table[k!, {k, 0, n}] (* Jean-François Alcover, May 18 2011 *)
Table[Abs[Numerator[EulerE[n, 1/4]]], {n, 0, 35}] (* Harvey P. Dale, May 18 2011 *)
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PROG
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(PARI) {a(n) = if(n<0, 0, n! * polcoeff( 1 / (cos(x + x * O(x^n)) - sin(x + x * O(x^n))), n))}; /* Michael Somos, Feb 03 2004 */
(PARI) {a(n) = my(an); if(n<2, n>=0, an = vector(n+1, m, 1); for(m=2, n, an[m+1] = 2*an[m] + an[m-1] + sum(k=0, m-3, binomial(m-2, k) * (an[k+1] * an[m-1-k] + 2*an[k+2] * an[m-k] - an[k+3] * an[m-1-k]))); an[n+1])}; /* Michael Somos, Feb 03 2004 */
{a(n)=((1+I)/2)^n*sum(k=0, n, ((1-I)/(1+I))^k*sum(j=0, k, (-1)^(k-j)*binomial(n+1, k-j)*(2*j+1)^n))}
(Sage)
@CachedFunction
def p(n, x) :
if n == 0 : return 1
w = -1 if n%2 == 0 else 0
v = 1 if n%2 == 0 else -1
return v*add(p(k, 0)*binomial(n, k)*(x^(n-k)+w) for k in range(n)[::2])
def A001586(n) : return abs(2^n*p(n, 1/2))
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CROSSREFS
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KEYWORD
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nonn,easy,nice
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AUTHOR
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EXTENSIONS
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STATUS
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approved
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